Category Archives: Guides

What are IGBTs?

An IGBT or the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is an amalgamation of a MOS and a bipolar transistor. It combines the best performances of both devices – the easily driven MOS gate and the low conduction loss of the bipolar. This effective device is quickly displacing most power bipolar transistors that were an obvious choice for high voltage and high current applications. IGBTs offer a balance in tradeoffs between conduction loss, switching speed and ruggedness. Manufacturers are now tweaking IGBTs to work successfully in the areas of high frequency and high efficiency that so long were the sole domain of power MOSFETs. In fact, barring applications that require very low currents, the industry trend is to replace power MOSFETs and power bipolar transistors with IGBTs.

When choosing an IGBT for a specific application, answering a few questions will usually narrow down the selection. Zeroing in on the most appropriate device will require a better understanding of the terms and graphs published by the manufacturers. These questions will be:
• What will be the operating voltage? Select IGBTs with VCES rating of at least 120% of the voltage that has to be blocked.
• Will the switching be hard or soft? A Punch-Through or PT type IGBT is best suited for soft switching because tail current reduces.
• What current does the device require to handle? In the part number of an IGBT, the first two numbers are a rough indication of the usable current. When looking for a device to work with hard switching applications, the selection usually depends on usable frequency versus current graph of the device. However, a certain amount of derating may be needed for which you could start with the IC2 rating.
• What is the speed you require to switch? For maximum possible speeds, a PT type IGBT is more suitable. Again, for hard switching applications, refer to the frequency versus current graph of the device.
• Will the device have to withstand short-circuit conditions? If you are driving motors, the device will certainly have to withstand shorts with low switching frequencies. Most often, short circuit capability is not required for switch mode power supplies.

A generic N-channel IGBT is fundamentally an N-channel MOSFET on a p-type substrate. PT type IGBTs usually have an additional n+ layer. Therefore, the operation of an IGBT is similar to how a power MOSFET works.

When you apply a positive voltage from the emitter to the gate terminal, electrons are drawn towards the gate in the body region. When the gate-emitter voltage is equal to or above the threshold voltage, electrons drawn towards the gate form a conducting channel across the body region, allowing current flow from the collector to the emitter or electron flow from the emitter to the collector.

The flow of electrons causes positive ions or holes to flow from the p-type substrate into the drift region near the emitter. Therefore, IGBTs can have simplified equivalent circuits such as:

The price for lower on-state voltage is the IGBT may latch up if operated outside the datasheet ratings. This is a failure mode where the IGBT cannot be turned off by the gate.

Latest Trends in Sensors – Miniaturizations and Combinations

We see various sensors in smartphones and other gadgets. So far, most of the sensors were available only as discrete solutions – one sensor for one parameter. The latest trend is to combine several sensors into one package, cutting the overall cost of the sensors.

It is now commonplace to find several sensors in a package, for example, gyroscopes and accelerometers. In fact, now the majority of the market is for combo sensors of this type, and such combination sensors are a very important trend on the technology side.

Another trend catching on fast is miniaturization. As cell phones grow thinner and more goodies are increasingly packed within them, miniaturization of sensors is enabling some of innovative sensor packages and devices. Starting with the X-Box Contact, which brought in various sensors for delivering rich fidelity, we see them moving in into mobile devices as well.

Today, you can visualize fitness as seeing the key vital signs, and the visibility of biometrics is fast becoming a reality. Sensor miniaturization along with the enhanced fidelity of devices is allowing device manufacturers and service providers experiment with devices for offering and fulfilling compelling specific needs.

The MEMS sensor from Bosch has combined pressure, temperature and humidity measurement in a single component. This sensor, BME280, is meant for use in handsets and wearables. It provides greater control and is useful for people interested in fitness and sports. The humidity sensor senses and measures relative humidity ranging from 0-100%, between -40°C and +85°C and with a response time of less than one second. With an accuracy of plus or minus 3%, a hysteresis of 2% or more, the temperature reading of the sensor has an accuracy of 0.5% Celsius.

The pressure sensor of BME280 makes indoor navigation very simple. The device is sensitive to pressure changes of plus or minus one meter of altitude difference with a resolution of 1.5 cms and a relative accuracy of plus or minus 0.12 hPA. The 8-pin LGA packaging of BME280 measures 2.5×2.5 mm, a height of 0.93 mm and has I2C and SPI serial digital outputs. Bosch provides the BSH1.0 algorithm for developers to place a function for temperature compensation in the device.

Miniaturization can be seen in the new generation of sensors for infrared sensing that are now entering the smartphone bandwagon for night vision and surveillance. At CES this year, people really welcomed the idea of scanning the environment at night. For example, walking out to the car at night feels much safer if the area can be seen beforehand.

FLIR Systems Inc., have fitted an infrared sensor to one of their smartphone jackets. It is a heat camera, and the jacket is suitable for thermal imaging attachment for the iPhone 5 and the 5S. The screen displays temperature in different colors. For example, the hottest temperatures are shown in yellow, while the colder ones have a more purple hue. This is a very useful attachment for detecting insulation or moisture leaks in the home and for spotting people or wildlife at night. You can record video of heat images or its photographs at low resolutions.

Do wirewound resistors suppress noise?

Specially designed wirewound resistors are used as noise suppressors in automotive ignition systems for reducing RFI or Radio Frequency Interference caused by electrical discharges. These resistors are usually placed in the leads and or caps of spark plugs and in the rotor of the distributor.

A gasoline engine generates high frequency electromagnetic Interference or EMI. This is commonly referred to as RFI or Radio Frequency Interference that comes primarily from the high-voltage side of the automotive circuit. At these places, the ignition system produces sparks at the coil that converts the battery voltage into high-voltage pulses. These pulses appear at the distributor, which routes the high voltage to the appropriate plug. Here, the spark ignites the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber producing the power that drives the crankshaft. Diesel engines do not have spark plugs as the air/fuel mixture is compressed to ignite and hence, diesel engines produce negligible EMI/RFI.

The high-voltage ignition pulses have a very rapid current change that generates an electromagnetic field around the ignition system. When electricity bounds through air, it passes through the air molecules, ionizing some of its atoms. As these atoms de-ionize, they release a tremendous amount of RFI. Although the frequencies are random and appear only for fractions of a second at a time, they affect almost any type of electronic device installed nearby to some degree.

Not only do these disturbances interfere with telephone and radio communications, they can even disrupt engine functioning and ABS control electronics. This type of interference sounds like a huge amount of crisps, crackles and rattles in radio receivers in communication systems.

International legislation requires manufacturers to reduce these disturbances to an acceptable level. That means the RFI must be reduced to a level so that there is no appreciable interference with the functioning of receivers not on the vehicle itself. Interference Suppression Regulations describe the RFI damping characteristics that manufacturers are required to follow, for example, VDE 0874 to 0879, CISPR or Council Directive 72/245/EEC, and usually differs from country to country.

Manufacturers usually track down the sources of RFI and limit it either at its source or filter it out before it can reach the instruments. The simplest and easiest method of prevention is by installing resistive spark plugs, resistive leads or ignition suppressor resistors. These contain internal impedance to dampen unnecessary emissions from the ignition system. Some manufacturers resort to redesigning the grounding circuit or installing feed-through/bypass capacitors.

Conventionally, spark plug leads usually carry a resistance of 6 to 15 Kohms per meter, and that makes them poor transmitters of RFI. However, electrical ignition systems may be sensitive to varying resistances in the spark-plug leads due to different lengths and can give mixed signals to the control module. Therefore, it is preferable to have solid-core wires with noise-suppressor resistors screwed onto brass fittings at the ends. This helps to maintain an equal resistance on each cylinder.

Use of noise suppressors is the best solution for reducing RFI. These resistors are designed for specific ignition systems and have the finest damping characteristics that do not cause disturbances to the ignition pulses. It usually suffices to place the resistors in the rotor of the distributor, in the spark plug caps or in the leads.

Why Does An Inductor Need A Fly-Back Diode?

An inductor usually stores energy when current flows through it, and releases it once the current flow stops. When the power supply to an inductor is suddenly reduced or removed, the inductor generates a voltage spike, which is also referred to as an inductive fly-back. Any current flowing through the inductor cannot change instantly and is limited by the time constant of the inductor. This is similar to the time constant of a capacitor, which limits the rate of change of voltage across its terminals.

The time constant of an inductor is the product of its inductance in Henries and the resistance present in the circuit. Usually, all current can be considered to have been dissipated within five time constants once the inductor has been disconnected. The process of inductive fly-back is best explained with an example – a 10H inductor in series with a 10Ω resistor, is charged long enough through a closed switch so that maximum amount of current is now flowing through the circuit.
When the switch is suddenly opened, the current flow has to come to zero within five seconds (five time constants). However, the switch opens far faster than five seconds, which implies current flow through an open switch – an impossible situation.

However, this can be explained by considering the switch to be bridged by air resistance of an extremely high value – 40,000,000 MΩ. Therefore, the inductor, in trying to keep the current flowing through the circuit will send a minute amount of current through this big air-resistor. According to Ohm’s law, every resistor will have a voltage drop commensurate with the current flowing through it. To maintain the current flow in the same direction, the inductor will have to change the polarity of the voltage across itself.

At the instant the switch opened, the current through the circuit would have been about 99% of the maximum current. Such a current multiplied by the extremely high resistance of the air gap will result in a huge voltage. Such a large voltage drop is possible because the inductor has stored energy, which it will use to create a very large negative potential on one side of the gap. That ensures the current flow will match the dissipation curve of the inductor. This is the origin of the huge fly-back voltage spike associated with the sudden disruption of current through an inductor.

The fly-back voltage generated by an inductor can be potentially damaging. Not only can the arc generated damage the insulation of the inductor, it can damage the switch or component being used to open or close the circuit. The arcing effect has been dramatically captured in this short video.
The use of a fly-back diode precludes the possibility of damage from an inductive fly-back. The diode provides a path for the inductor to drive the current flow once the circuit has been opened. As long as the circuit is closed, the diode is reverse biased and does not contribute to the functioning of the circuit.

When the switch opens, the inductor has a path to maintain the current flow through the diode. As the inductor reverses its polarity, it forward biases the diode, which then conducts current for the five time constants, until the current reduces to zero. That prevents the voltage spike.

What Are Switch-Mode Power Supplies?

Linear power supplies, once quite common, have now been mostly replaced by switch-mode power supplies (SMPS). The liner power supplies typically had a dissipative regulator – a voltage control element – usually a transistor that dissipated power equal to the difference between the unregulated input voltage and the fixed output voltage times the current flowing through it. The dissipative element prevented the linear power supplies from reaching high efficiencies.

On the other hand, the switching regulator in a switch-mode power supply behaves more like a continuously variable power converter. That allows the difference of the input and output voltages to affect the efficiency of the switch-mode power supply only marginally. Therefore, the switching regulator acts as a non-dissipative regulator, since the regulating device always operates either in a cut-off mode or in saturation.

Typically, the SMPS chops the input DC supply at a high frequency using an active device such as a power MOSFET or BJT and feeds the chopped voltage to the converter transformer. As the chopping frequency is high, the transformer is made of a ferrite core that can handle such high frequencies. Another advantage in keeping the operating frequency high is that the size of the magnetics decreases. The output of the converter transformer is rectified and filtered before being useful for the load. A part of the output voltage is fed back to the regulating/drive circuitry of the switching element to achieve regulation.

An SMPS usually has an oscillator that switches the control element on and off. When switched on, the control element pumps energy into the primary of the converter transformer. As the switching element switches off, the magnetic field associated with the energy in the converter transformer creates a secondary voltage in the output winding of the transformer. This voltage is rectified, filtered and fed to the load.

The frequency of switching, or the duty cycle of the oscillator is varied to control the energy fed into the converter transformer and consequently the output power delivered. An SMPS operates at a high efficiency since only the energy necessary to maintain the load current is pumped in, leading to minimal power dissipation.

The higher frequency of operation of an SMPS, typically in KHz/MHz, drastically reduces the physically massive power transformer (hallmark of a linear power supply) and the corresponding power line magnetics meant for filtering. That reduces the overall size of the power supply and this is evident from the tiny wall-wart power supplies available for, say charging smartphones.

SMPS are designed for specific applications. They are available in different topologies such as DC to DC converters, forward converters, fly-back converters and self-oscillating fly-back converters. Although the principle of operation remains the same for all, the manner in which the switching operation works is the main difference between the various topologies.

Usually, SMPS employ a method called the pulse-width modulation or PWM to control the average value of the output voltage. The area under the output waveform defines the average voltage of the repetitive pulse waveform. As load increases, the output voltage tends to fall. On sensing this, the feedback/control circuit modifies the PWM to increase the voltage to the required level.

What Are Diacs And Triacs Used For?

When you switch on your fan or light, chances are you also have a dimmer controller to control the speed of the fan or the intensity of the incandescent or LED light. Typically, dimmers are useful only where alternating currents are used, because they have components that allow only part of the waveform to reach the appliance. That means the appliance receives only part of the energy supplied and hence runs slower or glows dimly. Dimmers accomplish this AC waveform chopping or phase control with the help of two active components – a diac and a triac.

A diac is a bi-directional diode, equivalent to two zener diodes connected back-to-back. The diac is designed to break over at a specific voltage. When the voltage applied (in either polarity) to the diac is less than this break over voltage, the device continues in a high resistance state allowing only a minor leakage current.

As the applied voltage crosses the break over voltage (in either polarity), the diac starts conducting with a negative characteristic. That means, as break over occurs, the current flow increases and there is a corresponding voltage drop across the device. According to Ohm’s Law, an increase in current typically leads to a larger voltage drop, provided the resistance remains constant. However, since the diac shows a drop in voltage with increased current at break over, its resistance must have decreased. This is the reason for stating a diac exhibits negative resistance at break over.

The triac operates similar to two thyristors connected in reverse parallel but with their gates in common. Therefore, a triac can conduct in both directions when a voltage of either polarity is present across it and it has been triggered on by its gate terminal. The polarity of the gate pulse is immaterial for initiating conduction of a triac.

By controlling the gate pulse to occur at a specific position in the voltage waveform applied to the triac, it can be made to conduct for only a part of the entire cycle. This allows delivery of a fraction of the voltage to the appliance.

In a dimmer circuit, a diac is used to trigger the triac. Typically, a capacitor is allowed to charge via a variable resistance from the supplied AC voltage. As the capacitor charges through the resistor, the voltage on the capacitor rises until it reaches the breakdown voltage of the diac. The diac then conducts and triggers the triac, which, in turn, applies the remaining voltage of the cycle to the load/appliance. As the supply AC voltage crosses over, the triac switches off automatically, until again triggered by the diac.

If the resistance is large, the capacitor charges slowly and voltage on the capacitor takes more time to reach the breakdown voltage of the diac. That triggers the triac later in the waveform, preventing a major part of the voltage waveform from reaching the appliance. If the capacitor is allowed to charge faster, by keeping the resistance smaller, the triac triggers early in the cycle, and more voltage can reach the load.

How do Electronic Potentiometers work?

Nowadays, most electronic gadgets change their settings such as volume, bass, treble, brightness, contrast, sharpness etc., through “up/down” or “+/-” buttons in contrast to the rotary mechanical controls earlier. These are the electronic or digital potentiometers in action.

While the principle of operation remains the same whether it is a mechanical or an electronic potentiometer, the functionality of the two is quite different. While the mechanical potentiometer offers a continuous variation because it is an analog device, the electronic version is a digital type, offering discrete variations. The difference is due to the way the voltage dividing functionality is implemented in the two versions. As opposed to a single resistance in a mechanical potentiometer, the electronic version has several resistors, also called the resistor ladder network, switched into the circuit with multiple switches.

The voltage at the center terminal of the electronic potentiometer, therefore, depends on the resistance presently connected to the circuit with one of the switches. At first glance, it would seem to be a simple matter to increase the number of resistors and switches to reduce the granularity. However, electronic or digital switching requires each switch to have a unique digital address, usually in the binary format, defined by bits (0 or 1). Higher number of switches means larger number of bits, which increases the complexity of the electronic circuit controlling the switches. The switches, instead of being individual mechanical types, are usually semiconductor types and are integrated into a circuit along with their controller and the resistor ladder network.

This results in a neat little package, which can be soldered in-circuit and requires no panel or knob for its control. Usually, the control is via a micro-controller, which reads the increase or decrease instruction from the UP/DOWN buttons on the remote. It then generates a suitable binary word and sends it to the specific electronic potentiometer chip controlling the volume or any other function you want to change. Depending on the binary word, a specific switch turns on, connecting the required resistance to the central terminal of the potentiometer.

Just like their analog counterpart, electronic or digital potentiometers are also available in a variety of tapers such as linear, log, reverse-log, etc. Taper defines how the wiper voltage changes as it is moved from one end of the potentiometer to the other. For a linear taper potentiometer, both analog and digital, the wiper voltage bears a linear relationship to its physical position. For a potentiometer following the logarithmic or the reverse logarithmic taper law, the wiper voltage is nonlinear.

Since an electronic potentiometer is implemented in a chip, manufacturers adopt different ways of achieving the same results. While resistor ladder network is the most popular, the ladder implementation itself may differ for achieving the desired taper. Some manufacturers use operational amplifiers as buffers before or after the network, some use an anti-thump circuit to reduce the plop noise that is heard when one switch opens and another closes.

One major difference between the analog and the digital versions of potentiometers is the power handling capacity. Typically, the digital versions, in chip form, are unable to handle more than a few mill watts. In comparison, analog potentiometers capable of handling a few watts are quite common.

How Do Mechanical Potentiometers Work?

Electronic gadgets of about one generation back (prior to the prolific use of SMD), used rotary mechanical potentiometers for setting different parameters such as volume, tone, brightness, contrast, etc. For adjusting circuit parameters within the gadget, a smaller variation called the trim pot was a common sight. These are outdated now, but those who still own and use these gadgets often wonder how mechanical potentiometers function.

The most common example of a mechanical potentiometer is the rotary volume (also tone, bass, midrange and treble) control in an audio amplifier. Unless your amplifier has a remote control, chances are that for increasing or decreasing the loudness, you turn a knob labeled as “Volume” control. When you want to reduce the sound output from the speakers, you rotate the knob counterclockwise. The sound output increasing when the knob is turned clockwise. On the remote control, the knob is replaced by two buttons, one marked “+” for increasing and another marked “–“ for decreasing the sound output. Another example is the fan speed control, used mostly prior to the electronic versions.

Therefore, a mechanical potentiometer is a device to control a gadget’s complete range of operation. In its most common use, a potentiometer acts as a voltage divider. This three terminal device has a central pin that allows the resistance to be varied. This is called the wiper – named for the way it makes the mechanical connection to the fixed resistor between the other two terminals. If you connect the wiper electrically to any one of the other terminals, you transform it into a variable resistor or rheostat.

That the device acts like a voltage divider is easily verified from the schematic. If the voltage across the fixed resistor is the difference of voltages Va and Vb, the wiper will show a voltage Vw anywhere between Va and Vb depending on its position. Mathematically, (Va ~ Vb) = (Va~Vw) + (Vw-Vb). The device serves to cancel out tolerances of other components, when used in-circuit as a trim pot; thus allowing the required voltage setting to be achieved.

In construction, a mechanical potentiometer has a fixed resistor in the form of a circular track, stopping just short of a full circle (usually about 270-degrees). The track is printed on a ceramic or a glass-fiber base. The two ends of the resistance form terminals that may either be PCB solderable or suitable for wire termination. Depending on the requirement, the resistance may be of any value between a few ohms to several hundreds of ohms. The entire arrangement is encased in a housing, which also serves to accommodate the wiper assembly.

The wiper assembly consists of a phosphor-bronze spring that lightly bridges the surface of the resistance track and a circular metal track that forms the third terminal. The spring and track arrangement is attached to a metal shaft, but electrically isolated from it. The spring turns as you rotate the shaft, allowing the wiper to change its voltage.

The trim pot has a similar arrangement, lacking only the metal shaft for rotating the wiper. Instead, the phosphor-bronze spring doubles as the shaft, suitable for adjustment with a trimmer screwdriver. Potentiometers may also be of multiple turns to increase their resolution.

What’s the difference between SD vs SDHC cards?

We use several types of digital devices, which store data on external memory cards. Unfortunately, just as there is a large variety of digital devices, there is a plethora of memory cards to add to the confusion. People juggle with SDHC, SDXC, SD, MiniSD and MicroSD among the most popular cards. Often it is puzzling to ascertain what type of memory card will suit your camera, phone, MP3 player, tablet or other mobile digital device. Most memory cards are flash type with difference in formats, sizes and speeds.

SD vs SDHC:

Apart from Apple products, most digital devices offer means of adding to the internal storage capacity. Typically, this is some variety of the Secure Digital or SD memory card. Although SD has emerged as the most popular flash memory format, there are scores of SD cards of all shapes, sized and speeds to choose from – making it somewhat confusing to pick the right one for your device.

With flash memory cards, the primary aspects that need consideration are their physical format, size and speed. Since each of these variables has its own set of classes, you may find anything from 1GB Class 2 MicroSD card to a 16GB UHS-1 SDXC card.

When buying a memory card, consider where you are likely to use it. Chances are that your camera, smartphone and your camcorder use different sizes of card. Although you can start with the smallest physical format and use adapters to make it fit in different gadgets, it is better to use the card size that is intended for the device.

The largest format is the standard SD card measuring 32x24x2.1mm. Most digital cameras use this format, with high-end cameras shifting to CompactFlash cards, which are smaller. These days, the least frequently used card is the MiniSD card, measuring 21.5x20x1.4mm. Almost all cell phones and smartphones nowadays use the MicroSD card, which has dimensions of 15x11x1mm.

Memory cards come in a huge variety of storage capacities. However, the maximum capacity of a standard SD card is limited to 2GB. The most popular MicroSDHC or Micro Secure Digital High Capacity cards are available with capacities between four and 32GB. The Secure Digital Extended Capacity or SDXC can theoretically range from 64GB to 2TB. However, currently, the largest capacity available is only 128GB.

Larger the memory capacity, so much more you can store. However, if you have an older device, chances are that it can use only the larger SD card. The classification SD/SDHC/SDXC applies to devices as well. Therefore, double-check the type of cards your device can handle. SDHC cards will not work in a device that can handle only an SD card.

Flash cards are available in various speeds as well. The speed class ranges from Class 2 (slowest) to Class 10 (fastest). Class 2 is useful for standard-definition video recording. With Class 4 to Class 6, you can record high-definition video. When you are recording HD video or consecutive recording, Class 10 is more suitable.

If your camera or smartphone can shoot HD video or if you are going to shoot many high-resolution photos in quick succession, you should buy the Class 10 card. For occasional snapshots or casual videos, Class 4 to Class 6 cards will do fine. Prices vary between different types of cards – high-speed high-capacity cards are more expensive.

What should my CPU temperature be?

Normally, computer users are not very concerned about what temperature their CPU is running at. Desktop users may feel the hot air coming out of the back and laptop users may be concerned if the heat is too much for their laps. In reality, the temperature of the CPU depends on what the computer is doing, that is, how many programs it is currently running and how the manufacturer has arranged the fans in the cabinet.

Although the exact information of how hot your CPU should be running will be available with the processor manufacturer on their website, most processors used in desktops today do not exceed 90°C and typically operate between 70 and 90°C. However, this is only a general idea of what the processor should be running at, and as said earlier, the actual temperature depends on what programs the computer is concurrently running.

If you notice your computer running much slower than usual, restarting often or randomly crashing or turning off, it is likely that the processor is getting too hot. These effects are usually more noticeable when playing advanced games or when too many programs are running at the same time. If you continue to use your computer when its processor is exceeding its temperature limits, it is likely to reduce the life expectancy of the processor.

As the CPU speed reduces when its temperature goes up, you get more performance when the processor is running cooler. Overclocking a processor may allow you to run the CPU at a higher speed, but there is a likelihood that it will also generate more heat and its temperature will go up. Therefore, paying attention to how to remove excess heat from your computer may help in extracting more performance from it.

It is very important to keep your computer clean. Over time, hair, dirt and dust build-up can clog the ventilation holes and prevent good airflow inside the case. Therefore, make sure all ventilation holes are clean and heat sinks are not covered in grime.

For good air circulation, make sure the computer is placed in a good location, and not in a closed space such as inside a cabinet or a drawer. Unless there is plenty of ventilation, you may remove the back of the cabinet or the drawer. Keeping a space of at least two inches on both sides and the front of the computer is a good practice.

Verify that all the fans mounted inside the case and on the CPU heat sink are operating properly; look for any spinning or noise issues. Operating systems can monitor and display the fan speeds of the major fans in the computer. If you have replaced the processor or its fan lately, make sure you have applied the thermal paste properly, as that helps to transfer the heat away from the processor to the heat sink. You may also want to install more fans or replace those present with ones more efficient in moving air; check the CFM rating – higher is better.

Lastly, for those heavily into gaming or interested in over-clocking, water cooled solutions are available to keep processors cool.